The female 'queens' who ruled Ancient Egypt for three thousand years

Cleopatra the Great has become synonymous with the term "female pharaoh". As Joann Fletcher points out, Mark Antony's famous wife was only the culmination of three thousand years of female rule in Egypt.

According to the ancient Egyptians, the entire universe was composed of male and female elements, kept in a state of perfect balance by the goddess Maat. Her deities included the male Earth God, and the female Sky Goddess.

Egyptian women were always portrayed alongside men at every level of society. This no doubt explains why the Greek historian Herodotus was forced to conclude that the Egyptians changed the common practices of mankind when they visited Egypt in 450 BC.

While the most common title for a woman in Egypt's 3,000-year history was "mistress of the house," many women worked in the temple hierarchy. Other women were supervisors and administrators, or held titles ranging from doctor, guard or treasury judge, prime minister, etc.

At different times these women were also monarchs, from those who ruled in the name of their underage sons, to those who ruled in their own right like the pharaoh.

However, some Egyptologists still define female rulers with the modern term "queen", which simply refers to a woman married to the king. But at that time Egypt was led by women who had their absolute power and were not married to a king, including Cleopatra, as well as other pharaohs such as Hatshepsut and Nefertiti.

The first ruler in the history of Egypt was Merneith, whose rule dates back to about 2970 BC. When his tomb was discovered, at a place called Abydos in 1900, there were strong doubts that Merneith was the king, until it was discovered that he was female and not male. Yet her name appeared on the list of early kings of Egypt. The evidence for female rulers is as fragmentary as for their male counterparts, with few birth and death dates known, and a lack of portraits for most of them. But the titles of some of the female rulers have not really been recognized even though they have led Egypt as pharaohs.

Khentkawes I: Mother of Egypt

Title: Queen of Upper and Lower Egypt

Born in 2550 BC, died in 2510.

One woman whose status has been much debated is Khentkawes. She was the daughter of King Menkaure, and the wife of King Shpseskaf, and gave birth to at least two other kings, and evidence supports the idea that she herself ruled Egypt. Her tomb was built near the pyramids, and is considered the 4th Pyramid of Giza. She has her own temple, which raises suspicions that she served as a pharaoh at the end of the Fourth Dynasty. In fact, Khentkawe's royal status was suggested as early as 1933 by Egyptian archaeologist Selim Hassan during his initial excavations at her tomb. She was portrayed on the throne holding the pharaoh's staff. The tomb also revealed Khentkawe's official titles in hieroglyphic inscriptions, which translated as “Queen of Upper and Lower Egypt, Mother of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt". As for the British Egyptologist, Alan Gardiner, Khentkawes was only the mother of two kings and not a queen herself. Yet Khentkawes I has left her mark on Giza, as a magnificent tomb was built for her. There are also hypotheses that a large tomb was built for another woman in the Sahara, enough to make you think that she ruled Egypt after the death of her husband, King Djedkare. But the identity remains anonymous and forgotten as the name was erased from the grave after her death. It remains the Pyramid of the Unknown Queen. There are also hypotheses that a large tomb was built for another woman in the Sahara, enough to make you think that she ruled Egypt after the death of her husband, King Djedkare. But the identity remains anonymous and forgotten as the name was erased from the grave after her death. It remains the Pyramid of the Unknown Queen. There are also hypotheses that a large tomb was built for another woman in the Sahara, enough to make you think that she ruled Egypt after the death of her husband, King Djedkare. But the identity remains anonymous and forgotten as the name was erased from the grave after her death. It remains the Pyramid of the Unknown Queen.

Sobeknefru: "Crocodile Queen"

Title: Queen of Upper and Lower Egypt

Born in 1830 BC and died in 1785.

Despite evidence that some women held royal power during the third millennium BC, the universally accepted first female pharaoh is Sobeknefru. Daughter of Amenemhat III, whom she succeeded in 1789 to lead the country for 4 years. She appears in the official list of kings even after her death. The first monarch appointed by the crocodile God Sobek, symbol of pharaonic power, Saobeknefru received 5 standard names as queen, as well as the epithet "Daughter of the Sun Goddess". A full portrait of Sobeknefru was identified in 1993 and her family is also seen in that portrait. Soaeknefru created temples in northern countries and completed one of her father's pyramid complexes. She is said to have built her pyramid at a place called Mazghuna, but no trace of her tomb has been found. Her rule was followed by several male kings who called themselves the Crocodile Kings. The innovations of this pharaoh inspired another female pharaoh named Hatshepsut who ruled from 1479-1458 BC. Most female precursors have been ignored in history. Such is the case of Nefertiti. She was always judged for her beautiful bust, even though evidence shows that she possessed the same royal powers as her husband. Her example was followed by the female pharaoh of the 12th century BC, Tawosret, whose titles included "Daughter of the Sun Goddess". She was the last female pharaoh for almost thousands of years. The last millennium BC saw successive foreign invasions of Egypt. One of the most successful conquests was that of Alexander the Great of Macedonia who ruled for the last three centuries before the birth of Christ. Egyptian advisers established the system of royal dynasties and it was decided that women would hold the royal office.

Arsinoe II: The Queen

Queen of Macedonia, Queen of Upper and Lower Egypt

Born 316 BC, died 16 or 17 July 268

The legacy of Egypt's female pharaohs certainly inspired Arsinoe II. Married to two successive kings of Macedonia, Arsinoe then returned to her native land of Egypt, and after marrying her brother, King Ptolemy II, became queen there for the third time. During her lifetime, Arsinoe held the title of Queen of Upper and Lower Egypt. She was also called "Daughter of the Sun Goddess". Along with her brother-husband Ptolemy II, they were equated with the classical deities of Zeus and Hera. Arsinee II certainly used her multiple public image to great effect in her political dealings, when she and Ptolemy II were the first to make official contact with Rome in 273 BC. When Egypt joined Athens and Sparta against Macedonia, Asinoe played a leading role. Athens honored the royal couple of Egypt with statues, as did Olympia, where Arsione enjoyed great success at the Olympic Games of 272 BC when her teams won three times in a single day in the chariot races. It is said that images of Arsione and her statues were located in all the temples. This pleased the priests because they were aware of her noble attitude towards the gods and her great deeds for the good of mankind. In Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, Arsinoe's influence was even greater. She continued the tradition of Ptolemy by spending large sums on the city's Great Library and building a museum. where Arsione enjoyed great success at the Olympic Games of 272 BC when her teams won three times in a single day in the chariot races. It is said that images of Arsione and her statues were located in all the temples. This pleased the priests because they were aware of her noble attitude towards the gods and her great deeds for the good of mankind. In Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, Arsinoe's influence was even greater. She continued the tradition of Ptolemy by spending large sums on the city's Great Library and building a museum. where Arsione enjoyed great success at the Olympic Games of 272 BC when her teams won three times in a single day in the chariot races. It is said that images of Arsione and her statues were located in all the temples. This pleased the priests because they were aware of her noble attitude towards the gods and her great deeds for the good of mankind. In Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, Arsinoe's influence was even greater. She continued the tradition of Ptolemy by spending large sums on the city's Great Library and building a museum. This pleased the priests because they were aware of her noble attitude towards the gods and her great deeds for the good of mankind. In Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, Arsinoe's influence was even greater. She continued the tradition of Ptolemy by spending large sums on the city's Great Library and building a museum. This pleased the priests because they were aware of her noble attitude towards the gods and her great deeds for the good of mankind. In Egypt's new capital, Alexandria, Arsinoe's influence was even greater. She continued the tradition of Ptolemy by spending large sums on the city's Great Library and building a museum.

Legacy

The 48-year-old Arsinoe died in July 268 BC and was cremated in a Macedonian-style ceremony. She was remembered in every festival, on the streets, in towns, in big cities and entire regions not only in Egypt but also in the Mediterranean.

Her spiritual presence was so strong that for the next 22 years of Ptolemy's reign, he never remarried and continued to feature his dead wife in official portraits. Arsinoe II's achievements were later replicated by other women of her dynasty, the last of whom was Cleopatra the Great. Cleopatra was the last and most famous ruler of 3 millennia of Egypt.

Cleopatra VII: Queen of Kings

Title: Queen of Upper and Lower Egypt

Born 69 BC and died 12 August 30 BC (age 39)

Cleopatra VII, undoubtedly one of the most famous women of all time, was immortalized in history and in our imaginations in plays, books, films. She appears everywhere with her dialectical enthusiasm and a timeless magic. The Egyptian queen's name resonates so much that it has been chosen for an asteroid, a game, a ship, a crater, a band, a cigarette...

The figure of Cleopatra is handed down to us from the accounts of the classical authors, who are, however, in complete contradiction in this regard: Appiano does not concern himself much with details, Giuseppe does not respect chronology, Dion ignores precision in favor of rhetoric, Nicola Damasceno is a renegade of known (passed from Alexandria to the court of Herod, the king who at the last moment had betrayed Antony and the Egyptian queen). Despite all the cultural flourishes that distinguished Cleopatra's Alexandria, we do not have a single Egyptian author who transmitted to posterity the queen's point of view. There is no agreement even on some basic biographical data, such as the identity of Cleopatra's mother, how long she spent in Rome and how many times she was received in Urbe; we do not know if she and Antony were married (it is certain that Roman law did not accept marriages with foreigners, so for Rome Cleopatra was only a concubine), what exactly happened in the battle of Asius, which marked the fate of the queen, except that that of Mark Antony. In the end, we don't know for sure how she died: such a painful and inefficient method as constricting the snake seems to be a ruse, also because Cleopatra had safer poisons at her disposal that would not risk failure. So the sublime works of art that have Cleopatra as their protagonist are largely based on fantasy or creation, and very little on the chronicle of the time. In the end, we don't know for sure how she died: such a painful and inefficient method as constricting the snake seems to be a ruse, also because Cleopatra had safer poisons at her disposal that would not risk failure. So the sublime works of art that have Cleopatra as their protagonist are largely based on fantasy or creation, and very little on the chronicle of the time. In the end, we don't know for sure how she died: such a painful and inefficient method as constricting the snake seems to be a ruse, also because Cleopatra had safer poisons at her disposal that would not risk failure. So the sublime works of art that have Cleopatra as their protagonist are largely based on fantasy or creation, and very little on the chronicle of the time.

Nefertiti's great beauty removes her from the list of women who ruled Egypt

A queen in history

However, there are certain data that enable the framing of the historical figure of Cleopatra. She was born in 69 BC, the second of three daughters and the older sister of two other brothers, each of whom she would marry for a short period of time. She was not Egyptian, but belonged to the aristocracy of the Greco-Macedonian family of the Ptolemies, which traced its origins back to Alexander the Great and held the title of pharaoh for ten generations. Among the Ptolemies, murders and inbreeding were the order of the day (a very fashionable custom, at the time, in other dynasties as well), and Cleopatra herself was involved in these dramas. The Alexandrian world, unlike the Roman world, believed very much in the abilities of women, so we should not be surprised that Auletus, Cleopatra's father, had given her a very good education, putting to service the best erudites and most able scholars of the time who roamed the great library and museum of Alexandria. Cleopatra was taught and trained to govern and spoke several languages ??fluently, which enabled her to address without intermediaries weighty representatives of the Mediterranean states, in addition to her own citizens, of various origins. It seems that the queen's manners exerted an incomparable fascination, and if news of her beauty arose later, early sources convey the image of a queen who seduced with the charm of words, soft voice, and rhetorical skill, with the ability to entertained and satisfied the guests, to organize parties and masses with supernatural effects that always left the attendees speechless.

In particular, according to Plutarch, her arrival at Tarsus to meet Mark Antony sounds memorable: "She lay in a tent bathed in gold, adorned like the Aphrodites we see only in paintings, and a troop of slaves, who they resembled the painted god Amor, lined up on both sides and made them fresh. In the same way, her accompanying girls, dressed as Narcisi and Hijeshia, stood around her. Wonderful perfumes were distributed on the shores during the passage of the ship". Rumors of her arrival spread rapidly, while he sent to tell Mark Antony that "Venus had come in rare splendour, to join Dionysus, for the good of Asia."

Indeed, Cleopatra's reign was distinguished precisely for its very good administration, so much so that, unlike what had happened before, there were no major protests even in lower Egypt. The queen brought prosperity to Egypt, debased and minted new coins at the right moment, devoted herself to the administration of the kingdom and, in times of famine, emptied the royal granaries to feed her subjects.

She was generally a very beloved sovereign, distinguished above all for her political insight and skill even in the annexation of new territories thanks to a foreign policy carried out against Rome: no one in the Mediterranean world equaled her in terms of wealth. Under her reign the frontiers of Egypt were pushed back to match those that had made this country great centuries earlier. So why is it that we are not presented with the image of an attentive and capable sovereign, but that of a greedy libertine? The reasons are not lacking, and perhaps we should read in this light the narratives that have been passed down by the Romans and that have been filtered through imperial propaganda. Above all, in Cleopatra's time Rome viewed the East with suspicion, associating those exotic lands with the dangers of softness, unbridled luxury, perversion, royal and divine claims. It must not be forgotten that the Ptolemies were Greco-Macedonians, besides being masters of Egypt, and the Republic, which had not yet become an empire, feared, at least in public, Oriental refinement and customs. It is not known precisely whether Cleopatra really fell in love with Julius Caesar or with Mark Antony, but it is certain that she made them achieve what she wanted. From the Roman point of view, such a thing could only be explained by deception, trickery and magic; such brave men should have been suppressed only through sorcery and trickery. Octavian, after Antony and Cleopatra were defeated, in order to increase his glory even more, did not hesitate to attribute to the Egyptian queen the image of a greedy, unfaithful, bloodthirsty woman,

Fear of depriving him of the throne of Egypt led Octavian to execute Caesarion, son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, while Mark Antony's less dangerous Egyptian sons had better luck. During the long time he stayed in power, Octavian Augustus had all the time to continue the propaganda started during the duel with Mark Antony: he destroyed the statues of Cleopatra and rewrote the news written about the sovereign of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Until Asius, where Antony and Octavian were stuck for months and months appeared as the battle of all battles and a very great success for Octavian, and Cleopatra had to appear a foolish and malicious queen bent on the destruction of Rome …

Despite everything, two thousand years of bad information and artistic inventions cannot hide Cleopatra's great strategic and management skills. A woman who was undoubtedly great: self-possessed, sharp, energetic, very rich, ambitious, invincible to the end. In the end she managed to escape Octavian's surveillance and decide her own death, avoiding being marched through the streets of Rome in chains, as had happened to her sister years earlier. The power of this woman has always been associated with unbridled seduction, more than with her political skills: a powerful woman and a woman to be feared.

sobekneferu

khentkaus i

kleopatra

neferneferuaten nefertiti

arsinoe ii pharaoh